Overview
R1a-Z2123 is one of the central branches of the R1a-Z94 lineage and represents a major paternal lineage within early Indo-Iranian and later Scythian, Sarmatian and Saka populations. It formed during the Bronze Age in the steppes east of the Ural Mountains, among communities participating in the expansion of the Sintashta and Andronovo cultural spheres. Archaeological contexts link Z2123 to the emergence of complex metallurgical practices, early chariot warfare and long-distance pastoral networks that would later shape the Iron Age steppe world. During the Iron Age, Z2123 was carried by nomadic and semi-nomadic Iranian-speaking groups who inhabited regions stretching from southern Russia to Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and the Altai. These included early Saka, Massagetae and Scythian confederations known for their distinctive kurgan burials, mounted warfare traditions and participation in large-scale cultural exchange along the steppe corridor. Z2123 lineages have been documented in elite warrior burials, indicating its association with high-status groups and nomadic aristocracies. Z2123 also played a key role in the southward diffusion of Indo-Iranian lineages into the Iranian plateau and northern South Asia. It appears in ancient and modern populations from Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India, showing continuity of steppe ancestry in Indo-Iranian linguistic communities. Today, Z2123 remains widespread across Eurasia and forms one of the major branches of steppe ancestry outside Europe.