Overview
E-Z3612 represents one of the earliest and most influential splits within E-Z3611. It is a branch strongly associated with the demographic expansion of western and central African populations during the late Holocene. Evidence from phylogeographic surveys shows that E-Z3612 diversified shortly after the rise of the U209 cluster and played a major role in the spread of early Iron Age agricultural and metallurgical cultures. Its structure reflects multiple local expansions, each one tied to distinct ecological zones across the Cameroon Volcanic Line, the northern Congo Basin and riverine networks that supported population movements. Because of its broad internal diversity, E-Z3612 remains one of the most informative lineages for reconstructing detailed Bantu-associated dispersal routes.
Geographic distribution
E-Z3612 is most common today across Cameroon, Nigeria’s southeast, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and the western regions of the Republic of the Congo. Its downstream clusters extend deep into the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola, with significant frequencies in populations living along the Ubangi, Sangha and Congo rivers. The lineage also appears eastward in Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda, often in communities linked to later phases of Bantu expansions. Modern diasporic presence in the Caribbean and the Americas results from historic movements between the 1500s and 1800s.
Ancient DNA
- Environmental constraints in central African rainforests limit ancient DNA preservation, but archaeological continuity suggests E-Z3612 lineages were involved in early Iron Age cultural complexes including pottery traditions, iron smelting sites and settlement systems spreading from Cameroon into the Congo Basin.
- The timeline of E-Z3612 diversification closely matches the established chronology for early Bantu-speaking agriculturalist migrations between 3000 and 2000 years before present.
- Population-genetic models indicate several independent expansions rather than a single founder event, consistent with archaeological signals of regionally differentiated Iron Age communities.
Phylogeny & subclades
Within E-Z3612, major internal radiations correspond to three main geographic corridors: a western axis centered around Cameroon and Gabon, a central axis spreading through the DR Congo interior, and an eastern axis associated with Great Lakes populations. Several deep branches show time depths of around 1,500 to 2,000 years, which aligns with intensified population growth during the late Iron Age. Current sequencing datasets indicate that more structure is likely to emerge once additional samples from rainforest and riverine populations are incorporated.
- E-Z3612* basal
- Western Cameroon–Gabon cluster
- Northern Congo Basin branch
- Central DR Congo branch
- Great Lakes eastward expansion cluster
- Southern (Angola–Zambezi) derivative lineages
Notes & context
E-Z3612 is considered a key lineage for the demographic modelling of central and west-central African populations. Its position below Z3611 makes it a critical reference point for exploring regional settlement patterns, linguistic geography and the spread of cultural innovations. Future high-coverage sequencing projects in Congo Basin and Gabonese populations are likely to identify multiple new branches that will refine the structure of this lineage.
References & external links