Overview
E-Z3611 represents one of the major downstream branches of E-U209 and is notable for its rich internal structure and wide geographical extent. Its formation period places it alongside the earliest expansions of proto-Bantu populations, and the lineage bears clear signatures of multiple demographic waves moving from the Cameroon–Nigeria region through the western Congo Basin. E-Z3611 demonstrates substantial internal differentiation, indicating long-term regional settlement, branching and population growth across the equatorial forest zone. Its strong representation across both western and central Africa makes it a fundamental marker for reconstructing population histories tied to agriculture, metallurgy and the establishment of early Iron Age cultural complexes.
Geographic distribution
The lineage is common in Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Republic of the Congo. It also appears at high frequency in the northern and western regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, particularly along the Congo and Ubangi river systems. Eastern branches are found in Uganda, Rwanda and western Tanzania, marking movements into the Great Lakes region. Southern distributions include Angola and Zambia, indicating late southward expansions of Bantu-speaking populations. E-Z3611 is also represented among African-descendant populations across the Americas due to early modern historical migrations.
Ancient DNA
- Due to limited ancient DNA preservation in Central African environments, the lineage currently lacks direct ancient representatives. Nevertheless, archaeological correlations place E-Z3611 within early Iron Age populations associated with pottery traditions, ironworking and agricultural diffusion.
- The spatial overlap between E-Z3611 clusters and major river systems corresponds closely with evidence of early settlement patterns in the western Congo Basin.
- The tmrca estimates align with periods of significant demographic expansion tied to Bantu-associated population growth between 2500 and 1500 years before present.
Phylogeny & subclades
E-Z3611 exhibits several major internal radiations. A western-centred cluster appears in Cameroon and Gabon, likely reflecting early differentiation within the U209 core region. A large central macro-branch corresponds to demographic expansions through the DR Congo interior, particularly along riverine corridors. Eastern subclades reflect later migratory flows toward the Great Lakes region, while southern branches extend into Angola and Zambia. The phylogenetic structure reveals a lineage that expanded in multiple phases, rather than undergoing a single explosive radiation, suggesting complex demographic histories tied to ecological transitions, trade networks and cultural spread.
- E-Z3611* basal
- West-Central African early branch
- Congo Basin interior cluster
- Great Lakes eastward expansion branch
- Southern Angola–Zambia continuum
Notes & context
E-Z3611 is one of the most significant lineages for understanding the demographic dynamics of Central Africa during the late Holocene. Its broad internal diversity underscores the need for expanded sequencing efforts in underrepresented populations, particularly in rainforest regions where population histories remain poorly documented. As more sampling becomes available, E-Z3611 is expected to produce new subclades that will help refine the temporal and geographic modelling of Bantu migrations.
References & external links