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Haplogroup C2b1

C2b1-M93

Macro-haplogroup

Parent clade

C2b

Formed (estimate)

c. 20,000–25,000 years before present

TMRCA (estimate)

c. 8,000–11,000 years ago

M93
F1067
Z33105

Overview

C2b1 (M93) is a major branch of the southern C2b radiation and forms a core paternal lineage among populations of island Southeast Asia. It reflects long-term continuity among maritime hunter-gatherers and early Holocene foragers in the Philippine, Wallacean and eastern Indonesian regions. C2b1 diversifies primarily in insular contexts, mirroring ecological fragmentation and the deep demographic history of island groups before and during the Austronesian expansion.

Geographic distribution

C2b1 is most frequent in the Philippines, eastern Indonesia, and some Micronesian islands. Lower but noteworthy frequencies occur in Borneo, Sulawesi and coastal Papua regions. Minor traces appear in Taiwan and among Austronesian-descended diaspora populations.

Ancient DNA

Late Pleistocene remains from island Southeast Asia contain haplotypes ancestral to C2b1.
Early Holocene archaeological layers in the Philippines show paternal signatures consistent with C2b1 diversification.
Proto-Austronesian sites occasionally show C2b1-related lineages alongside indigenous Papuan components.

Phylogeny & subclades

Defined primarily by M93 and associated SNP clusters, C2b1 forms the central southern branch of C2b, with downstream diversity shaped by maritime isolation and limited inter-island male migration.

C2b1a
C2b1b
C2b1*

Notes & context